Topic 1 · Foundations
General Elements of Criminal Liability
Actus reus, mens rea, causation, strict liability, transferred malice, coincidence. The foundation every other topic builds on.
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Topic 2 · Fatal
Murder
Common-law definition, actus reus, mens rea (express & implied malice). Includes Vickers, Cunningham [1981], AG's Ref No 3 of 1994.
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Topic 3 · Voluntary MS
Loss of Control
Coroners and Justice Act 2009 ss.54–55. Qualifying triggers, normal-person test, post-Clinton sexual-infidelity ruling. Partial defence to murder.
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Topic 4 · Voluntary MS
Diminished Responsibility
Homicide Act 1957 s.2 (as amended by Coroners and Justice Act 2009). The four-element test plus Golds, Wilcocks, Dietschmann.
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Topic 5 · Involuntary MS
Unlawful Act Manslaughter
Constructive manslaughter — dangerous unlawful act, causation, Church, Mitchell, Kennedy. Mens rea for the act only.
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Topic 6 · Involuntary MS
Gross Negligence Manslaughter
Adomako four-stage test, duty of care, breach, gross breach, causation. Wacker, Misra, Rose.
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Topic 7 · Non-Fatal Offences
Common Assault
Apprehension of immediate unlawful force. Smith v Woking, Ireland, Tuberville v Savage, Constanza. MR: intention/recklessness.
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Topic 8 · Non-Fatal Offences
Battery
Application of unlawful force. Collins v Wilcock, DPP v K, Haystead v DPP, DPP v Santana-Bermudez. Direct, indirect, and omission battery. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 9 · Non-Fatal Offences
ABH (s.47)
Assault occasioning actual bodily harm under s.47 OAPA 1861. R v Miller [1954], R v Chan-Fook [1994], Savage/Parmenter [1991], R v Roberts, DPP v Smith (Michael) [2006]. ABH meaning, psychiatric injury, constructive intent doctrine. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 10 · Non-Fatal Offences
GBH s.20 (unlawful wounding)
Malicious wounding or infliction of grievous bodily harm under s.20 OAPA 1861. Actus reus: wound (both skin layers broken — JJC v Eisenhower) or GBH ("really serious harm" per DPP v Smith, refined by R v Bollom). Mens rea: recklessness — foresight of SOME harm suffices (R v Parmenter, R v Cunningham). Distinction from s.18 (which requires intent to cause GBH). Also covers psychiatric injury via R v Ireland/Burstow. Maximum sentence: 5 years. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 11 · Non-Fatal Offences
GBH s.18 (with intent)
Grievous bodily harm with intent under s.18 OAPA 1861 — the highest-mens-rea non-fatal offence. Actus reus: wound or GBH (DPP v Smith, R v Ireland/Burstow). Mens rea: intent only (no recklessness) — R v Belfon, R v Nedrick, R v Woollin on oblique intent. Distinction from s.20 GBH. Maximum sentence: life imprisonment. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 12 · Property Offences
Theft
Theft under s.1 Theft Act 1968 broken into its five elements. Actus reus: appropriation (R v Morris, Lawrence, Gomez, Hinks), property (s.4), belonging to another (s.5, Turner (No 2)). Mens rea: dishonesty (post-Ivey v Genting Casinos [2017] test replacing Ghosh) and intention to permanently deprive (s.6, R v Lloyd, DPP v Lavender). Maximum sentence: 7 years. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 13 · Property Offences
Robbery
Robbery under s.8 Theft Act 1968 — the four elements. Completed theft, use or threat of force (R v Dawson & James, R v Clouden), immediately before or at the time of stealing (R v Hale), in order to steal (R v Robinson). Distinction from theft and from assault. Maximum sentence: life imprisonment. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 14 · Property Offences
Burglary
Burglary under s.9(1)(a) and s.9(1)(b) Theft Act 1968 — two distinct offences with shared elements. s.9(1)(a): enter as trespasser with intent to steal, inflict GBH, or cause unlawful damage. s.9(1)(b): enter as trespasser then commit or attempt theft or GBH. Elements: entry (R v Brown, R v Ryan), building or part of building (R v Walkington), as a trespasser (R v Collins, R v Smith and Jones — exceeded permission), and the requisite mens rea. Maximum sentence: 14 years (dwelling), 10 years (non-dwelling). Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 15 · Defences
Insanity and Automatism
The two capacity defences, and the line between them. Insanity under the M’Naghten rules: defect of reason, from a disease of the mind, so the defendant did not know the nature and quality of the act or that it was wrong. Internal versus external factors (R v Quick, R v Hennessy, R v Burgess, R v Sullivan). Non-insane automatism: a total loss of voluntary control caused by an external factor, and the self-induced automatism limit. Special verdict and disposal under the Criminal Procedure (Insanity) Act 1964. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 16 · Defences
Intoxication
When drink or drugs can and cannot excuse. The voluntary and involuntary distinction, and the specific versus basic intent rule from DPP v Majewski. Voluntary intoxication as a defence to specific intent offences only; R v Lipman, R v Kingston, R v Hardie on non-dangerous drugs, and R v Allen on mistaken strength. Dutch courage and AG for Northern Ireland v Gallagher. How intoxication interacts with mistake and with the other defences. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 17 · Defences
Self-Defence and Prevention of Crime
The complete defence to a charge involving force. Private defence at common law and the prevention of crime under s.3 Criminal Law Act 1967, now governed by s.76 Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008. Two questions: was force necessary on the facts as the defendant believed them (R v Gladstone Williams, R v Oatridge), and was the degree of force reasonable (R v Martin, R v Clegg). Householder cases and the “grossly disproportionate” test under s.76(5A). Mistaken belief, intoxicated mistake (R v O’Grady), and pre-emptive strikes. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 18 · Defences
Duress and Necessity
When pressure or circumstance can excuse a crime, and where the law refuses. Duress by threats: the two-stage Graham test as confirmed in R v Hasan, threats of death or serious injury, the imminence requirement, and the voluntary association exclusion. Duress of circumstances (R v Willer, R v Martin, R v Pommell). Necessity and its narrow scope (Re A (Conjoined Twins), R v Dudley and Stephens). Why neither is available to murder or attempted murder (R v Howe, R v Gotts). Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 19 · Defences
Consent
When the victim’s agreement is a defence, and the public-policy limits on it. The general rule from R v Brown that consent is no defence to actual bodily harm or worse, and the recognised exceptions: properly conducted sports (R v Barnes), surgery, tattooing and body modification (R v Wilson, R v BM), horseplay (R v Jones, R v Aitken) and lawful chastisement. Real consent, capacity and consent obtained by fraud (R v Tabassum, R v Dica). Where the courts draw the line and why. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 20 · Inchoate Offences
Attempts
Liability for a crime that was never completed. The offence under s.1(1) Criminal Attempts Act 1981: an act which is “more than merely preparatory” to the commission of the offence, with intent to commit it. Where the courts have drawn that line (R v Gullefer, R v Campbell, R v Geddes, R v Jones, AG’s Reference (No 1 of 1992)). Mens rea: intention only, and the position on conditional intent and recklessness as to circumstances (R v Khan). Attempting the impossible under s.1(2)–(3) (R v Shivpuri). Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 21 · English Legal System
Civil Courts and ADR
The civil justice system end to end. Which track a claim is allocated to — small claims, fast track, intermediate and multi-track — and why. The County Court and High Court divisions, the appeal routes to the Court of Appeal and the Supreme Court, and the pre-action protocols. Alternative dispute resolution in full: negotiation, mediation, conciliation and arbitration under the Arbitration Act 1996, with the advantages and disadvantages of each against litigation. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 22 · English Legal System
Criminal Courts and Lay People
How a criminal case moves through the courts, and who decides it. Classification of offences as summary, either-way or indictable, mode of trial and the Magistrates’ Court and Crown Court. Appeal routes from both, including case stated. Lay magistrates: selection, role, training and the arguments for and against them. Juries: qualification and disqualification under the Juries Act 1974, selection and vetting, the secrecy of the deliberation room, and the strengths and criticisms of jury trial. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 23 · English Legal System
Legal Personnel
Who does what in the legal profession, and how they get there. Solicitors, barristers and legal executives: training routes including the SQE and the Bar course, day-to-day work, rights of audience and regulation by the SRA, BSB and CILEx. Fusion of the professions, and the arguments for and against. The judiciary: appointment through the Judicial Appointments Commission, the superior and inferior judges, judicial independence and security of tenure, and the debate on judicial diversity. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 24 · English Legal System
Access to Justice
How people actually pay for legal help, and who gets left out. Public funding after LASPO 2012 and the scope cuts it made, the means and merits tests, and criminal legal aid including the duty solicitor scheme. Private funding: conditional fee agreements, damages-based agreements, and before and after the event insurance. The advice sector — Citizens Advice, law centres, pro bono and trade unions. The advice deserts argument and whether access to justice is genuinely available. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Negligence · Tort Law
Negligence
The complete negligence framework. Donoghue v Stevenson, Caparo v Dickman, Robinson v CC of West Yorkshire, Bolam, Bolitho, The Wagon Mound. Duty of care, breach, causation, remoteness, defences (volenti, contributory negligence). OCR H418 Paper 2 (Tort Law). Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Occupiers' Liability · Tort Law
Occupiers' Liability
Lawful visitors and trespassers under the Occupiers' Liability Acts 1957 and 1984. Wheat v Lacon, Roles v Nathan, Glasgow Corp v Taylor, Phipps v Rochester Corp, Tomlinson v Congleton BC, Haseldine v Daw. Duty to lawful visitors (OLA 1957 s.2), child visitors, independent contractors, exclusion of liability, duty to trespassers (OLA 1984). OCR H418 Paper 2 (Tort Law). Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Private Nuisance · Tort Law
Private Nuisance
Unlawful interference with the use or enjoyment of land. Hunter v Canary Wharf [1997], Sturges v Bridgman [1879], Christie v Davey [1893], Robinson v Kilvert [1889], Miller v Jackson [1977], Cambridge Water v Eastern Counties Leather [1994]. Interest in land, locality, duration, malice, abnormal sensitivity, social utility, defences (statutory authority, prescription). OCR H418 Paper 2 (Tort Law). Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Rylands v Fletcher · Tort Law
Rylands v Fletcher
The strict liability tort. Bringing or accumulating a dangerous thing on land that is likely to cause harm if it escapes. Rylands v Fletcher [1868], Read v Lyons [1947], Hale v Jennings [1938], Cambridge Water v Eastern Counties Leather [1994], Transco v Stockport [2003], Stannard v Gore [2012]. Non-natural use, accumulation, escape, foreseeability of harm, defences (act of God, act of stranger, statutory authority, consent). OCR H418 Paper 2 (Tort Law). Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Vicarious Liability · Tort Law
Vicarious Liability
Strict liability for the torts of another. When an employer is liable for an employee's wrongful act committed in the course of employment. Lister v Hesley Hall [2001], Mohamud v WM Morrison [2016], Cox v Ministry of Justice [2016], Various Claimants v Catholic Child Welfare Society [2012], Mattis v Pollock [2003], Lloyd v Grace, Smith & Co [1912]. Employer-employee relationship (or akin to employment), course of employment, close connection test, frolic of his own, independent contractors. OCR H418 Paper 2 (Tort Law). Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Defences and Remedies · Tort Law
Defences and Remedies
The cross-cutting guide to defences and remedies across the entire Tort suite. General defences: contributory negligence (Law Reform (Contributory Negligence) Act 1945), consent / volenti non fit injuria, illegality / ex turpi causa, necessity, statutory authority, limitation. Remedies: compensatory damages (general and special), aggravated and exemplary damages, injunctions (prohibitory, mandatory, interim, final), abatement, mitigation of loss. Key cases including Froom v Butcher [1976], ICI v Shatwell [1965], Patel v Mirza [2016], Lagden v O'Connor [2003], Sayers v Harlow [1958]. OCR H418 Paper 2 (Tort Law). Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 25 · Law Making
Parliamentary Law Making
The five stages of a Bill in Parliament (First Reading → Royal Assent). Types of Bill (Public, Private Members', Private, Hybrid). Influences on Parliament, parliamentary sovereignty (Dicey, Pickin v British Railways Board), and evaluation. OCR H418 Paper 2 (Law Making). Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 26 · Law Making
Delegated Legislation
Types of delegated legislation (Orders in Council, Statutory Instruments, By-laws). Parliamentary controls (affirmative and negative resolution, scrutiny committees, enabling Acts) and judicial controls (ultra vires — procedural and substantive). Advantages and disadvantages. Key cases: R v Home Secretary, ex parte Fire Brigades Union, Aylesbury Mushroom. OCR H418 Paper 2 (Law Making). Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 27 · Law Making
Statutory Interpretation
The four rules — literal, golden, mischief, and purposive. Intrinsic and extrinsic aids to interpretation (long title, headings, Hansard, dictionaries, reports). Presumptions and rules of language (ejusdem generis, expressio unius, noscitur a sociis). Key cases: Whiteley v Chappell, Adler v George, Heydon's Case, Pepper v Hart. OCR H418 Paper 2 (Law Making). Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 28 · Law Making
Judicial Precedent
The doctrine of stare decisis. Ratio decidendi vs obiter dicta. Court hierarchy and binding precedent. Original, binding, and persuasive precedent. Avoidance techniques — distinguishing, overruling, reversing. Key authorities: the Practice Statement [1966], Young v Bristol Aeroplane, R v R. OCR H418 Paper 2 (Law Making). Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 29 · Law Making
Law Reform
Reasons for law reform and the bodies that shape it. The Law Commission (Law Commissions Act 1965) — repeal, consolidation, codification, and reform projects. Royal Commissions, public inquiries, pressure groups (insider and outsider), and the media as agents of change. Reform-led statutes including the Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007 and the Fraud Act 2006. OCR H418 Paper 2 (Law Making). Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 30 · Law Making
European Union Law
The EU institutions and sources of EU law (Treaties, Regulations, Directives, Decisions). Direct effect (vertical and horizontal) and supremacy. Post-Brexit position under the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 and retained EU law framework. Key cases: Van Gend en Loos, Costa v ENEL, Factortame, Marshall v Southampton AHA. OCR H418 Paper 2 (Law Making). Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 37 · Paper 3 Concepts
Nature of Law
What is law? How law differs from morality, justice, and other rule-systems. Theories of law (positivism, natural law, legal realism), the rule of law (Dicey, Lord Bingham, Joseph Raz), and the Hart-Fuller / Hart-Devlin debates. Key cases: Shaw v DPP, R v R, Re A (Children) (Conjoined Twins). OCR H418 Paper 3 / Section A. Full case index, theory comparison tables, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 38 · Paper 3 Concepts
Law and Morality
How law differs from morality, and how the two interact. The Hart-Devlin debate (Wolfenden Report, common morality), Hart-Fuller debate (positivism vs natural law), and Mill's harm principle. Key issues: assisted suicide, abortion, consent in violence. Cases: R v Brown [1993], Airedale NHS Trust v Bland [1993], R (Pretty) v DPP [2001], Shaw v DPP [1962]. OCR H418 Paper 3 / Section A. Full case index, theory comparison tables, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 39 · Paper 3 Concepts
Law and Justice
What is justice? Theories from Aristotle (distributive and corrective justice), Bentham (utilitarianism), Rawls (veil of ignorance, original position), and Nozick (entitlement theory). Substantive vs procedural justice, equity, and miscarriages of justice. Key cases: R v Dudley and Stephens [1884], the Birmingham Six, R (UNISON) v Lord Chancellor [2017]. OCR H418 Paper 3 / Section A. Full case index, theory comparison tables, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 40 · Paper 3 Concepts
Law and Society
How law reflects, shapes, and responds to society. Theories of law and society: Pound's social engineering, Marxist conflict theory, Durkheim's functionalism, and legal realism (Holmes, Llewellyn). Social control mechanisms, the role of pressure groups, and law as a tool for social change. Key examples: R v R [1991], R (Nicklinson) v Ministry of Justice, Equality Act 2010, Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Act 2013. OCR H418 Paper 3 / Section A. Full case index, theory comparison tables, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 41 · Human Rights
Rules and Theory of Human Rights
The foundations of the whole option. What a right is and where rights are said to come from — natural law, positivism and the social contract. Absolute, limited and qualified rights, and why the distinction decides most exam questions. The development of human rights from Magna Carta through the Universal Declaration to the European Convention. Rights against the state versus rights between individuals, and the theoretical debates examiners expect in extended answers. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 42 · Human Rights
Protection of the Individual’s Rights and Freedoms
How rights are actually protected in the UK. The Human Rights Act 1998 in detail — s.2 and the duty to take Strasbourg case law into account, s.3 and interpretation so far as possible, s.4 declarations of incompatibility, s.6 and public authorities, and s.7 standing. Parliamentary sovereignty and the dialogue model. Judicial review as a route to protection, and the role of the courts, Parliament and the Equality and Human Rights Commission. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 43 · Human Rights
Key Provisions of the ECHR
The Articles the specification names, examined properly. Article 5 liberty and security, Article 6 the right to a fair trial, Article 8 private and family life, Article 10 freedom of expression and Article 11 freedom of assembly and association. For each: the scope of the right, the permitted restrictions, and the tests of legality, legitimate aim and proportionality. Margin of appreciation and the balancing of competing rights. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 44 · Human Rights
Human Rights and English Law
Where domestic law limits Convention rights, and whether the limits are justified. Police powers under PACE 1984 — stop and search, arrest and detention — measured against Article 5. Public order and protest under the Public Order Act 1986 and later reform, measured against Articles 10 and 11. Privacy, surveillance and the Investigatory Powers Act 2016 against Article 8. The proportionality question running through all of them. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 45 · Human Rights
Enforcement of Human Rights
What a claimant actually does, and what they get. Bringing a claim under the Human Rights Act: who counts as a victim, the one-year time limit, and which courts hear it. Remedies under s.8, including damages and just satisfaction. Taking a case to the European Court of Human Rights: admissibility, exhaustion of domestic remedies, and the effect of a judgment. The practical and political limits on enforcement. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 46 · Contract Law
Contract Rules and Theory
The foundations the rest of the paper sits on. What a contract is and why the law enforces it, freedom of contract and the shift towards consumer protection. Objective versus subjective agreement, the will theory, and the tension between certainty and fairness. Standard form contracts, inequality of bargaining power, and the role of statute in correcting it. The theoretical grounding examiners expect in extended answers. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 47 · Contract Law
Formation
How a contract actually comes into existence. Offer and invitation to treat (Fisher v Bell, Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball, Partridge v Crittenden), acceptance and the postal rule (Adams v Lindsell, Entores), counter-offers and the battle of the forms (Hyde v Wrench). Consideration: sufficiency, past consideration, and existing duty (Stilk v Myrick, Williams v Roffey). Intention to create legal relations in domestic and commercial contexts. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 48 · Contract Law
Terms
What is actually in the contract, and what the law puts there. Express and implied terms, terms implied by fact, custom and statute. Conditions, warranties and innominate terms, and why the classification decides the remedy (Poussard, Bettini, Hong Kong Fir). Implied terms under the Consumer Rights Act 2015 and the Sale of Goods Act 1979. Exclusion clauses: incorporation, construction, and control under UCTA 1977 and the CRA 2015. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 49 · Contract Law
Vitiating Factors
What makes an apparently valid contract defective. Misrepresentation under the Misrepresentation Act 1967 — fraudulent, negligent and innocent — with the remedies for each (Derry v Peek, Howard Marine, Royscot v Rogerson). Economic duress and the modern test (Pao On, Atlas Express, Times Travel). Undue influence, actual and presumed, and the Etridge protocol. Rescission and the bars to it. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 50 · Contract Law
Discharge
How contractual obligations come to an end. Discharge by performance and the entire obligations rule, with the exceptions: substantial performance, divisible contracts, prevention and acceptance of part performance (Cutter v Powell, Hoenig v Isaacs, Sumpter v Hedges). Discharge by agreement, and by frustration — impossibility, illegality and radical difference (Taylor v Caldwell, Krell v Henry, Davis Contractors). Breach: actual, anticipatory and repudiatory. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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Topic 51 · Contract Law
Remedies
What the injured party actually gets. Damages and the compensatory principle, expectation and reliance loss (Robinson v Harman, Anglia TV). Causation, remoteness under Hadley v Baxendale and The Achilleas, and the duty to mitigate (British Westinghouse). Damages for non-pecuniary loss (Jarvis v Swans Tours, Ruxley v Forsyth). Equitable remedies: specific performance, injunctions, rescission and rectification, and when the courts will refuse them. Full case index, AO3 worked answer, RAG-rated revision.
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